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GRANITE OBJECTS IN KERALA CHURCHES: An Investigation into their
Distribution, Antiquity, and Significance.
Paper presented by Prof. George MENACHERY, LIRC, Mount St. Thomas,
Kakkanad, October 19-21, 2004.
Indigenous advances in archaeology , numismatics , anthropology ,
epigraphy , geography and
ocean studies , geology , art, architecture,culture, literature , folk arts, place name studies ,
etc. in recent years have shed considerable new
light on the origins and situation of early
Christianity in Kerala and as such serve scholars as
meagrely used but excellent resource tools for Kerala
historical studies in general and Thomas Christian
studies in particular . Perhaps this is the place where we might once
again stress the importance of the study of local history , and the
necessity for following an interdisciplinary approach, and for
publishing scholarly findings in Malayalam and in the popular media for
the ordinary Nazraney who is only too eager and extremely enthusiastic
to learn about one’s own roots, and stress also the compulsions of
modern Kerala society where it is necessary and even essential to
collaborate with secular scholars even in the investigation of matters
relating solely to Church History, Art, or Culture .
Rock Objects in Kerala Churches:
The present paper is an attempt to survey examples of
rock-work in the art and architecture of the churches
of Kerala in the light of recent studies and surveys,
and to essay their significance for the study of Kerala history and
culture. The St. Thomas Christian
Encyclopaedia of India , Vol.II, April 1973, (hereafter
STCEI II), and the Indian Church History Classics ,
Vol.I (i.e. The Nazranies), January 1998, (hereafter ICHC I) may be
consulted for some one thousand illustrations,
a large number of which bearing on Christian art and
architecture in India . In those volumes there are
scores of pictures of rock objects from churches. Rock
art in churches, represented by the Nazraney Sthambam
or rock obelisk cross, the rock Deepa Sthambam, or
lamp-stand, rock pedestal of the copper-sheathed Dwaja
Sthambam or Kodimaram /flagstaff, are all found in front
of the typical early Nazraney churches. There is also
the exquisitely carved baptismal font or
Mammodisakkallu in the baptistery, often situated at
the west end of the nave, immediately after the
portico or Mukhamandapam, beyond the main door called
in Malayalam Aanavathil, which last often with granite
doorposts and architraves. (However of late,
especially in the west-Syriac tradition of Kerala, the
baptismal fonts are to be seen near the altar to the
right of the congregation, in keeping with the universal trend,where
more and more Churches are allowing unbaptised persons to come near the
altar.) True, these objects will only cover the front courtyard of the
church and just take us beyond the threshold of the nave into the
baptistery; but then we must stop with that for the present; although
there are also a few statues, doorposts, Gopurams, pillars and tablets
with reliefs, and architraves all in stone which deserve our attention.
Flights of Rock Steps:
Places of worship in Kerala as in many other climes
were generally constructed on hilltops or the highest
available spot in a locality, except of course those
on the sea-coast and river banks. It is found that the
reputedly earliest churches were on the sea shore, or
on the shore of the lakes or Kayals and rivers. Later
churches were constructed in the interior at High
Places. People reached these places of worship
navigating the steep slopes, afterwards replaced by
granite steps. The Thrissur Vadakkunnathan temple of
Pooram fame is still reached by climbing the slopes,
but most churches today have constructed granite
flights of steps and side roads leading to them. The churches at Ollur,
Kuravilangad, Uzhavoor, Parappur, Ramapuram, Kaduthuruthy (both
churches), Kottayam (Valiya Palli), Palai (Old Cathedral), Parel, and
Changanassery are reached by going up the flight of rock steps or
Nadakkallus. There are many churches with Sopanams with balustrade like
handrails on either side or without those handrails, all carved out of
rock (e.g. at Parur and Kothamangalam. By the way the Parur Sopanam, at
least one of the carved hand rails, was seen last week in a broken
condition!)
There are three striking objects of significance in
front of the typical Malabar churches, either inside
the courtyard or just outside it: the open-air granite
(rock) cross which the present writer has christened
Nazareney Sthambam; the Dwaja Sthambam or flag-staff made of Kerala’s
famed teak wood (e.g. at Parur), and often enclosed in copper sheaths /
hoses or Paras (as at Changanassery, Pulinkunnu, or Chambakkulam), or
made out of some other timber or other material; the Deepa Sthambam in
granite as at Kundra, Kallooppara, Chengannur, and Niranam. Sthambams or
pillars of some type or other are to be found among the Buddhists, Jains,
Hindus, etc. in India. Such pillars and structures were part of the
Christian heritage of Kerala much before the ascendancy of Vedic
Hinduism in
these parts, although James Fergusson either did not
know or did not care about these .
Rock Crosses:
The open-air rock-cross of Malabar is an obelisk, a
tall stone column, with four, sometimes decorated, but without
inscriptions,slightly tapering sides, with arms added. Rome has many
obelisks (from Egypt and the East) which have been sometimes made into
cross-bearing structures decorating the piazzas and squares (e.g. in
front of the St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican). Others are near the
Lateran , in the Piazza dell’ Esquilino , in Piazza dei Cinquecento , in
the Piazza del Quirinale , near the Piazza di Spagna ( near the
Propaganda Fide) , near the Piazza del Popolo , near the Piazzo di
Montecitorio , and in the Piazza Minerva .
London has one on the banks of the Thames (Cleopatra’s
Needle) as one gets down from the Houses of Parliament; Paris has one at
the place d’ la Concorde; and
even New York has one in the central park. Many
memorials like the Washington Memorial are
obelisk-shaped. The Asoka Pillar and other such Indian
pillars must have been inspired by the
Graeco-Parthians, under Egyptian-Persian influence.
The Nazraney Sthambam is a direct descendant of the
obelisk, and much closer to it than the other Indian
pillars - in shape, method of construction and
transportation, method of erection, function, and
solar symbolism. The Roman obelisk, bearing crosses
today, have been converted to Christianity, while
Kerala's cross-shaped obelisks were born Christian .
The obelus and the double-dagger reference marks
in printing may be profitably recalled here. The Celtic rock crosses
with their peculiar shape and intricate carvings are in another
category.
The three-tier gabled indigenous architecture of
Kerala churches , which lacked facades until the coming
of the Portuguese, immensely gains in richness,
symmetry, and beauty because of the open-air rock
crosses, some of them more than 35 feet in height
including the intricately carved pedestals, and
monolithic shafts. No other community in Kerala has
such a huge monumental stone structure, and no other
Christianity has such a universal and huge emblem in
front of the churches, except the obelisks of the Vatican and Rome which
of course were not originally Christian symbols, but were later
Christianized by the addition of crosses at their top . The indoor
counterparts of
these open air crosses have the earliest carvings in Kerala of the
national flower lotus and the national bird
peacock. Perhaps even the national animal tiger is
first depicted in Kerala art in church sculpture. It
has been said that there existed no rock carving in
South India prior to the period of these indoor
crosses . The motifs, message, and images on these
crosses and their pedestals display a remarkable
degree of Indianness and Malayalee Thanima or
identity. Vedic Hindu Gods and Goddesses like Ganesha,
Vishnu, Shiva, Sapthamathas, Jeshta etc. appear in the
art of the central Guruvayoor/Palayoor-Quilon part of
Chera country only after the 11th-13th centuries, and
even in the Salem-Erode section, and the
Trivandrum-Cape Comorin section Vedic Hindu deities
appear in art only as late as the 9th century A.D.
The rock open-air cross employs three sets of sockets
and cylinders. The base with a socket (cavity), the monolithic square
and slightly tapering shaft with cylindrical terminals to fit the
sockets, the horizontal piece forming the arms with a double socket (one
cavity above and one below) in the middle, and the capital
with a cylindrical bottom end are the four members of
the open air cross . They are so well chiselled and
proportionate that when put together the socket and
cylinder arrangement enables the cross to stand all by
itself. However for the bigger crosses, pedestals - in
the form of sacrificial altars or Balikallus - are
found, often carrying exquisite reliefs of the flora
and fauna of the land in addition to scenes from the
daily life of the early Keralites and biblical scenes.
The cross representing the supreme Bali (sacrifice) or
Mahabali appearing on the Balikkallu most
appropriately represents the Calvary events and sheds
plenty of light on the ideological, historical,
theological, cultural and technological bent of mind
of the forefathers. Compare with the base of the
Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople, A.D.390.
The Obelisk and the Rock Cross:
The obelisk is a ray of the sun - here a ray of Christ
(of Horus - Xt. the sun-God). This ray helps the lotus
near - universally depicted on such crosses to blossom
forth representing in a typical Indian poetic conceit
the grace received by the sin - bound human soul
(panka - jam) from Christ. Lotus, representing the sun
is found in other early Indian art also. The Buddhist
Padmapada concept also comes to mind. The half dozen
interior Pehlevi inscribed crosses, some of them
undoubtedly of at least pre 7th century origin, which
were mostly tombstones before they were put up on the
altars , have generally the dove (Holy Spirit)
depicted on top of the clover or flower tipped
equal-armed Greek cross, in addition to the lotus at
the bottom .
In the three piece (Thri-kanda) Pehlavi cross one might,
perhaps, with considerable effort read the lotus
represented Brahma (Father), Vishnu, and Shiva. The
arrangement to hold wicks found on the open air
crosses may be related to the preservation of fire,
and the effort to make it available to the common
people in the dim past, when Homakundams were rare in
Kerala or beyond the reach of the common folk. It is
perhaps in connection with the need to preserve fire
that the oil-Nerchas and oil Araas of the churches,
and the compound - wall rock lamps are to be evaluated.The oil related objects in the churches also indicate
the connection of this Christianity with the trade of
the land, especially oil-trade. The bell like
arrangement on some crosses also is noteworthy.
Veneration of the cross, angels, Adam and Eve... and
of course the Indian Cross itself are some of the notable
religious carvings on these structures.
Deepa Sthambam:
The square or polygonal shape of the individual pieces
in the granite or rock lamp stands at Kallooppara,
Kundra, and Chengannur indicate the antiquity of such
lamp stands in the churches. Unlike in the churches,
in the temples, the tradition of these lamps continued
and thus developed into the present-day round shape of
the pieces. In art history generally the simpler forms
make their appearance first, and refinements and
complications indicate a later date. Even when the
tradition of lampstands declined in the churches,
many open-air crosses had wick holders incorporated
into them, with the advantage that wind and rain do
not put off the flames. Church walls still display
rows of rock lamps (Kanjoor, Angamaly, Ollur). Inside the churches the
tradition of bronze lamps continued vigorously, many churches still
displaying rows of bronze lamps, representing a variety of shapes and
types, and some
lamps having even hundreds of wick holders, e.g. the
Aayiram Aalila lamps at Arthat, Akapparambu, or Angamaly. The lamp, be
it in bronze or rock, represents Christ who is light, as does the rock
cross which is a ray of the Sun or Christ shining from the East.
Dwaja – Sthambam:
In front of the church the third interesting object is
the flagstaff, sometimes covered with copper Paras.
Every festival is announced with the Kodiyettu or
flag-hoisting, a tradition going back to early
Buddhist times at least. The flag-staff at times has a
carved rock pedestal. All these three objects in the
courtyard of the church have a variety of liturgical
functions associated with them, into which we are not
entering at present .
Granite / Stone Baptismal Fonts:
Let us now climb and go across the portico and enter
the Haikala or nave beyond the Aanavathil to look at
the rock baptismal font in the baptistery. As we enter
the church the huge doorways flaunting Aanavathils or
elephantine doors or door for elephants have Architraves and doorposts
displaying good examples of south Indian rock-carving. (E.g. old
Kayamkulam, Chengannur, Kanjoor). But the rock-baptismal fonts are the
real pride of many an old church.
There are interesting rock baptismal fonts at
Edappally, Kanjoor, Mylakkombu, Muthalakkodam,
Changanassery, Kothamangalam, Kadamattom etc. The
similarity of these baptismal fonts with illustrations
of the fonts used for the baptism of Constantine
(4thC.) and Clovis (Rheims c.496) is remarkable.
All the old baptismal fonts are of granite or very
hard laterite. They are all huge in size indicating
that baptism by immersion could have been the order of
the day. Most of the old baptismal fonts depicted in
the STCEI II & the ICHC I were probably of a date
prior to or very near the promulgation of the decrees
of the Synod of Diamper which made permanent fonts
more or less compulsory. Although most of the old
baptismal fonts/ baptisteries are found near the west
end or middle of the nave on the northern side -
Kaduthuruthy (Big), old Edappally, old Kanjoor,
Changanassery (Southern side), in many churches,
mostly Jacobite/Orthodox they are found today close to
the sanctum sanctorum e.g. Angamaly (Middle-church),
Kallooppara. They are exquisitely carved with reliefs
of the baptism of Christ, Mary feeding the Child,
angels, Indian crosses, etc. There are also wonderful
motifs of leaves, the basket pattern, coir pattern,
etc. engraved on these stones. By the way the very
Malayalam word Mammodisakkallu indicates a font made
of stone. Another term is Mammodisath-thotti. The Holy
Water Font is called Annavella Thotti also often in
stone.
[Here permit us by way of digression to mention a word about Asoka the
Great and Taxila the major source of Indian sculptural tradition, other
than Mathura. Alexander the Great and his general Selucus both
westerners were in Takshashila or cut stone (Taxila) in Gandhara, the
land of Gandhari and Shakuni on the banks of the Indus, before the
architect and builder Thomas arrived in those parts. The daughter of
Selucus supposedly married Chandra Gupta Maurya. Their (?) son Bimbisara
was the father of Ashoka the Great. Was Ashoka a foreigner? Until James
Pincep deciphered the writings on an Ashoka Pillar in the 19th century,
our knowledge even of this great Indian emperor was minimal. Compared to
this our knowledge of Apostle
Thomas’ Indian sojourn must be considered quite
adequate. But that is another story.]
The national emblem of India is derived from one of
the Ashoka pillars. One can see this emblem of four
lions and the wheel on any Indian currency note in
one’s pocket. Those lions of Ashoka roared not in
hostility but in love. The roar of these four lions
for love we next hear from the amazingly attractive
ancient rock baptismal fonts of Malabar, at Edappally,
Kanjoor, and elsewhere. These four lions support the
hemispherical basin of the font, as the Ashoka lions
were supporting a globe, in the very same manner in
which the Egyptian obelisks were supporting the
shining disk of the Sun. But in the midst of our other
interests we failed to give our ears to these voices
and to preserve these great Malabar lions, an
endangered species, indeed, in our own midst.
For at Edappally e.g. the stone baptismal font was
dismantled into three pieces and strewn about the
courtyard of the church, at the mercy of the
innumerable pilgrims and pick-pockets frequenting the
spot.
At Angamaly one could still see (i. e. before the huge new church was
built) the old baptismal font
in many pieces near the priests' kitchen. In Punnathra
the font is used to collect rain-water, a euphemism
this writer has been using for a salty human out -
pouring. At Kudamaloor in 1970 to photograph the font
once used to baptize the Blessed Sr. Alphonsa this
writer had to rescue it from the many layers of
plaster on the wall. This list it is not necessary to
prolong. Cry, the beloved country.
font>
Antiquity and Significance
Although to investigate the antiquity of art objects in Kerala is a
complicated exercise, and a discussion of their significance is even
more tricky, let us proceed with some observations here in this regard,
most of which have already been made from time to time, in one form or
other, by the present writer, hoping that others would travel farther
along these and other roads, and would indeed find better paths…… As the
time and space allotted this paper have long been overrun we will have
to be content with a few pointers only.
A schoolboy definition of philosophy is “the contemplation of the
unknown”. And theology thus becomes the contemplation of (the unknown)
divine. What follows is merely some stray thoughts on the antiquity and
significance of the rock objects in the churches of Kerala.
The Unique Place of the Cross in Kerala
The ubiquitous cross of Malabar churches is best
represented by the rock crosses, mostly outside the
churches. This open-air granite cross is the central
point of many liturgical observations and ceremonies and processions.
Festival related and liturgical processions in Malabar are of at least
four kinds: certain Pradakshinams or processions starting near the altar
end at the
Mukhamandapam or portico of the church; many others,
importantly, enter the courtyard and go round the rock
cross, others go round the church, still others wind
along the valley-roads and Angadies surrounding the church-hill,
commencing and concluding at the foot of the rock-cross. In every
procession processional crosses occupy places of honour. In funeral
processions also the cross is at the forefront of the procession.
The Kerala Christian gets up in the morning making the sign of the
cross, and goes to bed making the sign of the cross. Not only that. The
night prayer before going to bed “Yudanmarude Raajavaaya Nazraayakkaaran
Ishoye” is a translation of the INRI on the cross of Jesus. The sign of
the cross is made at the four ends of the bed before retiring at night.
The sign of the cross is made on doors and entrances with the ash on Ash
Wednesday, now Ash Monday. The Way of the Cross is a favorite devotion
of the Malayalee.
St. Thomas is the Old Man of the Cross or Kurishumuthappan. Wayside
chapels are Kurisu Pallies. There are large numbers of crosses in gold
and silver and other metals and in wood and cloth and paintand ivory and
every other imaginable medium in every church. There are crosses
adorning the triple facades of the churches or triple Monthayams. The
cross and the crucifix are to be seen everywhere in the churches. The
cross is the symbol of Christianity in Kerala, especially when it is
recalled that there were no images other than the cross in Kerala
churches before the advent of the Portuguese.
Another Significance
Tree worship, characteristic of pre-historic, primitive, and aboriginal
communities must have been common at the time of the arrival of St.
Thomas in India. Sangham literature has many descriptions of kings,
especially the Moovarachars – the Cheran, the Cholan, and the Pandyan –
planting, nourishing, and celebrating their own dynastic trees, and of
cutting down and destroying the sacred trees of the enemy . The tree,
like the pole and the tower represents the axis mundi and connects
heaven and earth, and sometimes even hell . The sacralisation of a spot
was often achieved by the planting of a tree like Arayal, or the setting
up of a stone, or the building up of a tower – as the means of
communication between man and the divine, between earth and heaven. This
idea is perhaps well represented in the obelisk and in the open-air rock
cross of Kerala. Before a place could be inhabited it must be created
and the establishment of the cross creates sacred space, around which
people could stay and live. Was this the meaning behind Thomas the
Kurisu Muthappan, and Sapor and Proth the Kandeesangal planting crosses
all over the place, initiating Chrstian places of residence and
commencing Christian Congregations and Communities.
Certain other ideas which could be read into the rock objects have
already been mentioned in this paper, and as such are not being gone
into again.
Procedures for assessing Antiquity
How old are the rock objects in the Kerala churches? Have their
antiquity been measured scientifically? What are some of the means at
our disposal to measure the antiquity of these objects? These are a few
questions which ought to be discussed.
As the maximum possible age of Christian artefacts cannot be more than
two millennia, and will be in most cases only 1500, 1000, or even less
years, certain kinds of scientific tests could not be conducted with any
hope of obtaining reliable results even were the necessary facilities
available here for conducting such investigations. The possible lack of
the presence of organic material (such as wood, bone, charcoal) on these
objects has been pointed out by certain archaeologists and associated
scientists as reasons for the inability to precisely fix the dates of
such objects . However it may be possible to get better results in the
future if experiments could be conducted with international
collaboration. However the State and Central governments and departments
of archaeology must have a positive approach to these studies.
One of the methods used today is based on typology. Using this method
Kerala archaeological departments and archaeologists and historians
associated with the study of Kerala artefacts have come to the
conclusion that the Pehlevi crosses are most probably of a period
between 3rd and 7th centuries, although some of these crosses are
replicas of the earlier crosses and hence might belong to the 9th or
10th centuries. While a member of the Archaeology Advisory Board of the
Government of Kerala (1975 – 1982) this writer had many opportunities to
discuss these matters with archaeologists from India, and also with
archaeologists in Britain, Egypt, Rome, and elsewhere during wanderings
abroad, and their views have helped to formulate these tentative
conclusions, although final conclusions could be arrived at only after
more systematic consultations.
The history of the royal Sassanid language provides another clue. The
Sassanid,the dynasty that ruled Persia from 226 to 641 CE. had Pehlevi
(Pahlavi in Parthian) for their official language. Since the language
itself ceased to exist soon after the decline and fall of the Sassanid
dynasty around mid 7th century original objects with the script could
not be later than say 4th or 5th century CE. Hence the Pehlevi crosses
could not be later than the 7th century at the latest.
There are listed in the Diocesan Directories and elsewhere the accepted
dates for the establishment of the various churches in Kerala. Choosing
only the pre-Diamper (i.e. 16th C. and earlier) churches mentioned in
the Malayalam records of the Synod and Gouvea’s Jornada , the churches
founded in different centuries could be chronologically classified .
Also each Malabar church acknowledges a mother church; by going from
mother church to mother church until arriving at the first seven
churches the chronological position of a church could be decided
vis-à-vis other churches . This will help decide the approximate date of
the church.
The copper plate grants, the rock inscriptions, the wooden beam
inscriptions, the Granthavaris, the statements of missionaries and
travellers, folklore, the Song of Thomas Ramban , Margam Kali Pattukal ,
Pallippattukal , Kurishinte Pattukal etc. also have clues to the
establishment of churches, and directly or indirectly to the
establishment of the Rock Crosses &c. All these aids must be
intelligently utilized to decide the dates of the rock objects in
churches.
The tools are there, the persons are there, only our firm will is
required to compile an authentic history of our land and our Church. Let
us wish ourselves Good Luck!
==============================
Dates of Churches: from those dates, Contents page of Pallikkalakalum
Mattum, KHA paper repro. In PalliKK…, Shadabdhi Smaranika..
Kurishu and kurishumuthappan,
Typology…
Pehlavi Crosses….
Diamper and Baptismal fonts…
72 privileges…
In every metal, wood, clothe, ….
Kurishupalli, kurishadi, kurishu Varakkuka, Edges of bed, INRI at bed
time prayer,
Axis Mundi, Centre of the world, Hierophany, Sacred space, Near sacred
space, Eliade, Coomaraswamy, Eluvathingal,…
Jyothi Sahi..
Theology of the cross..
Mahabali..
Panka-Jam..
Veneration of the cross everywhere…
======================================
A recent instance is the discovery of a large
selection of artefacts such as a Chera coin with
elephant, ankusha, bow & arrow of the 1st. century CE,
a portion of an amphora, shards of pottery, bricks
used in construction, ringwells, beads, rouletted
ware, b&w ware... all from the early historical layer
during excavations conducted by Dr. Shajan and Dr.
Selvakumar at Pattanam near Parur on the south bank of
the present Periyar river, a few miles to the south of
Kodungallur. Roberta Tomber of the University of
Southamton, Dr. M.G.S Narayanan, Dr. P.J.Cherian and
many others believe that this was the site of the
ancient Muziris of the first century Greek and Roman
writers. Cf. their papers presented at the seminar
conducted by the Kerala Historical Research Society,
Sahitya Academy, Trichur. Also see the Administration
Reports of the Royal Cochin Archaeologists, Rama
Pishariti and Anujan Achan for pre-independence years,
reprinted in George Menachery, ed. The St. Thomas
Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Trichur, 1973, left
col.,p.53 to right col., p.159.
Cf. “Numismatics at the Service of Historical
Research,” papers presented by G. Menachery at the
Madras and Karur congresses of the Numismatic Society
of Tamilnadu and at the Thrissur, Kanyakumari, and
Veliyanad conferences of the Numismatic Society of
South India. Some of these papers may be read in the
issues of the HARP, Kottayam (Ed. Dr. Jacob
Thekkepparambil); The St. Thomas Christians
Journal,Rajkot (Ed. Bp. Gregory Karotemprel); and the many issues of the
electronic journal ‘Light of Life,’ 2003 – 2004, New York, N.Y.
One such work is the ‘Anthropology of the Syrian
Christians’, L. K. Anantha Krishna Ayyar, 1926, Ernakulam portions from which
have been reprinted in ICHC I, pp. 485 et. sq.
The excellent translations of the Tharisappalli
Christian plates of 849 CE and the Jewish plates in
Cultural Symbiosis, M. G. S. Narayanan, Kerala Society
Papers, 1972 are essential tools for all students of
Early medieval Kerala history and culture.
See “Roads to India,” article by Maggie G.
Menachery in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, II,Trichur, 1973,
Ed. G. Menachery.
This topic is elaborately treated in Chapter I of
Kodungallur:.. G. Menachery and W. Chakkalakkal,
1987,(reprint 2000), Azhikode. A. C. Perumalil SJ, The Apostles in India, Fact
or Fiction?, 1952, Patna elaborately deals with the first century Roman and
Greek contacts with India and Kerala. K. S. Matthew and collaborators have much
on early and middle second millennium ocean trade.
The tectonic plate below the area from Palayoor to
Parur is supposed to be the largest one in Kerala and
as such earthquakes &c. were quite rare in this area,
helping the development of a continuous civilization
here, giving birth to the growth of Muziris and other
famous international trade centres down the centuries.
Cf. Menachery, notes to Chapter I of Kodungallur: above.
The Malayalee ought to study the Sangham
literature with some enthusiasm as it is the common
heritage of all South Indians. The reluctance of
certain historians and authors, especially of the secular historians and
scholars of Kerala , to refer to the Sangham
literature is somewhat beyond one’s comprehension. The
neglect especially of the beautiful lines of the
Aka-nanooru, the Pura-Nanooru and the Pathittuppathu
has no justification except the prejudices of such
persons. How come the avoidance of passages from the Sangham literature in the
text books of Kerala? The mysterious loss of the first and tenth Pathu of the Pathittuppathu must be more vigorously investigated.
Each of the place names in the Palayur area f.i.,
such as Chowghat (Shapakkadu), Orumanayoor,
Puthumanassery, Arthat, Chemmanur carry some
historical significance and as such ought to be
scrutinized by the student of Kerala history. Cf. G.
Menachery, Aashamsa, in Chemmannur Kudumba Charithram
by Major Cherunny, Guruvayur, 1999. The many efforts to throw light on Kerala
historical problems from an investigation of local history and folklore must be
enthusiastically encouraged. See “Introduction,” G. Menachery, in George Emmatty,
“Kuttikalkku Kerala Charithram,” 2003, H & C Publishing House, Thrissur.
For more thoughts on these aspects of Syrian Christian historical and
cultural studies the curious may refer among other sources the many
end-notes by this writer in Chapters I and II of George Menachery & W.
Chakkalakkal, Kodungallur: City of St. Thomas, 1987 (reprinted as
Kodungallur: Cradle of Christianity in India, 2000), Mar Thoma
Pontifical Shrine, Azhikode. Certain efforts have been made to utilise
the expertise of secular scholars and institutions in these fields by
conducting seminars, workshops, courses of lectures &c. on related areas
by the Institute for Lay Leadership Training, (Estd. 1967) Thrissur; LRC,
Kakkanad; Pontifical Seminary, Mangalapuzha, etc. For more references
also see “Introduction” by the present writer in ‘Angamaly
Rekhakal’(Malayalam, = Angamaly Documents) by Varghese Angamaly and
Jomon Thachil, Merit Books, Cochin, 2002; “Introduction” by G. Menachery,
in Dalitbandhu N. K. Jose, “Adisthana Keralam,” Vaikom, 2001;
introductory article “Kerala Patanathinu Oru Kaivilakku” by G. Menachery
in The ‘Naalagamam of Palakkunnel Valiachan,’ Alleppy, 2001 &c. The
museums set up / being set up at Mt. St. Thomas, Kakkanatt; Bishop’s
House garden, Cochin; Jeevass, Alwaye; Palai; Ernakulam as well as the
exhibits from the Christian Cultural Museum of Trichur (1980) now being
displayed at the Palayur Museum could shed considerable light on these
aspects of the question. The lists of exhibits at the Christian Cultural
Pavilion, Kanakakkunnu, Trivandrum (First World Malayalam Conference),
1977; Christian Cultural Exhibition, Trichur Pooram Exhibition, 1978;
Christian Cultural Exhibition, Malankara Golden Jubilee Celebrations,
SEERI, Kottayam, 1980 also may be helpful here (Pallikkalakalum Mattum,
G. Menachery, Eiffel books, Trichur, 1984).
Including historical and even quasi-historical studies, works,
“souvenirs” &c. on families (e.g. Kudumba Charithram), churches (e. g.
Palli Mahathmyam), parishes, places (e. g. Sthala Puranam), persons
(autobiographies, biographies), institutional and organizational
commemoration volumes.
The popularity of the many Christian historical and cultural museums and
exhibitions is an indication of this.The huge crowds of lakhs and lakhs
of people who enthusiastically assembled and exuberantly cheered the
1983 Cultural Rally and the 2004 CBCI Conference Historico-Cultural
Programme at Thrissur were quite heartening. As these ideas have more
than once been expressed from this very platform it is not perhaps
necessary to go into that again. And the good news is that already
substantial steps have been taken in this direction at least in a few
quarters. Cf. f. i. the LIRC publications Ed. Dr. Bosco Puthur
containing the proceedings of the Pre-Diamper Seminar and the Seminar on
Brahmins, Jews, and the Sangham.
Published from Trichur,Ed. G. Menachery.
Published from Ollur, Ed. G. Menachery.
The Diocesan Centenary Celebrations Volume of Trichur “Shadabdhi
Smaranika” (1987-91) has some two hundred related pictures. The
Kanjirappilly Diocese has published an interesting volume of text and
pictures. The Kottayam Diocese has a number of publications in the field
to its credit. The Ollur Forane Church St. Anthony Octingenary
Celebrations Souvenir (1996) has dozens of pictures. Of late many other
dioceses and parishes have published useful works with quality visuals.
Naturally, concerning recent works, one could speak of only those works
which have come to one’s attention.
“Christianity Older than Hinduism in Kerala,“ paper by G. Menachery,
World Syriac Conference, SEERI, 2002, published in the HARP and
afterwards in the St. Thomas Christians Journal and recently in the
Light of Life.
James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern
Architecture, London, 1876, passim.
135 ft., brought from Heliopolis in 37 A.D. Sixtus V ordered its
placement before the basilica, employing it is said 900 men, 150 horses,
and 47 cranes for the operation.
Oldest obelisk in Rome ( from Thebes, 15th C. BCE) brought by
Constantius II,357.
Set up here by Sixtus V in 1587. 48 ft.
Incorporated into the monument for the 500 Italian soldiers fallen at
Dogali.
Shifted to this spot by Pius VI in 1786 only. 47.5 ft.
The hieroglyphics were incised after bringing to Rome.
78.5 ft. Augustus brought it to Rome from Heliopolis and was dedicated
to the sun. Most obelisks have various sun connections.
72.5ft. high. Brought to Rome by Augustus to celebrate his victory over
Cleopatra.
The hieroglyphic on this small obelisk relates to the last
of the independent Pharaohs, ally of Zedekiah the last king of Judah in
the Bible.
G. Menachery,1975 & 1978 in the course of
interviews at Rome broadcast by Radio Vatican.
Cf. Article “Kerala Church Architecture” by Andrews Athapilly in the
STCEI II, 1973; and “Thomas Christian Architecture” by E. J. James
Menachery in the same.
With their typical three tiered gabled roofing, which is the harmonious
blending of the Kazhukkol, Vala, Sheelanthi, Thulam, Monthayam,and
Pattika, reflecting the great skill of the Kerala Moothasari or
carpenter.
Vide notes 17 to 26 supra.
The Pallava rock carvings of Mahabalipuram are either posterior to or
contemporary with the Pehlevi crosses. In any case in Kerala no rock
carvings have been noticed before these Pehlevi crosses.
K. V. Soundara Rajan, Art of South India: Tamil
Nadu and Kerala, Delhi, 1978.
Aja – Eka Paada: - Thonda Mandalam, 8th C.; Chola
Mandalam, 11th C.; Paandi Mandalam, 13 th C.; Kongu –
Chera Nadu, -.
Ananthashaayi:- Thonda Mandalam, 6th C.; Chola
Mandalam, 5th C.; Paandi Mandalam, 8 th C.; Kongu –
Chera Nadu, 8th C.
Ardhanaari:- Thonda Mandalam, 7th C.; Chola Mandalam,
9th C.; Paandi Mandalam, 13 th C.; Kongu – Chera Nadu,
9th- 10th C.
DakshinaaMoorthy:- 7; 9; 9; c.8.
Ganesha:- 8; 8; 7; c.8.
Harihara:- 8; -; 8; 11.
Jvarahareshwara:- 10; -; 9; 13.
Jeshta:- 8; 9; 8; 11.
Lingotbhava:- 8; 8; 8; after 11.
Sapthamatha:- 8; 9; 8; 14.
Thrimoorthi:- 8; -; 8; 8.
This socket and cylinder arrangement of the rock crosses can be easily
studied if one examines the recently discovered pieces of the rock cross
at the Changanassery Cathedral Cemetery or the pieces in the Eastern
church compound at Angamaly. In spite of requesting the church and
convent at least a dozen times from 1971 to 2004 the pieces of the rock
cross at Angamaly are still in a discarded condition there, approachable
only in the hot summer when the grass withers away or when the snakes
take a holiday.
In 1980 while establishing the Christian Cultural
Museum, Lourdes Cathedral, Trichur the present writer
came across all four pieces of a granite open
air cross underground in the sandy compound surrounding the
Enammavu Church (c. 500 CE). This was taken to the Cathedral on the eve
of the inauguration of the Museum. Other office bearers of the Museum
Committee, including its
chairman who was the V.G. of Trichur then, waited with many bags of
cement and two masons and helpers to put up the
cross in front of the Museum. But when the four pieces
were unloaded from the truck and put in place
utilizing the sockets and cylinders carved out on the
pieces the cross stood by itself sans aid of mortar or mason! Such
experiences enabled the writer, when he was shown three pieces of the
fallen cross collected at the Changanassery Cathedral Cemetery a few
years ago by the Cathedral Vicar, to request him to look for a fourth
piece, which was eventually discovered as a result of the old vicar’s
search. The discovery by this writer of pieces of a cross submerged in
mud at Kalpparambu (1978?) led to its re-erection, once again providing
the writer a chance to study the techniques employed in carving such
crosses.
These are the aspects which should have been discussed in detail in
connection with the significance of the rock objects had we not already
hugely exceeded the allotted time and space. The discovery of the St.
Thomas Mount ‘bleeding cross’ while digging the premises is well known.
The Alangad cross (see picture and description in ICHC I, Ollur, Jan.
1998, p. 576 reproduced from the Light from the East, Chicago
Bi-Monthly, 1953 with the caption: ‘Persian Cross on tomb of Mar Jacob,
Alangatt, India’.) remained for very long in the cemetery. The size and
inscriptions on the other such crosses also show that they were
tombstones before they were removed to the altar / wall. The ‘Tree of
Life’ theory and the ‘Great Rivers’ theory can hardly hold water
archaeologically and sculpturally in the case of the vast majority of
rock crosses where the lotus or the Pookkallu of the Kerala sculptor is
only too well depicted, and finds comparison with the lotus on the
Balikkallus of temples. But in theological and theoretical
interpretations such ideas can perhaps help. Cf. unpublished doctoral
thesis “Thomas Christian Architecture,” by Dr. E. J. James, Calcutta
University, 1980. Also his article on the same topic in the STCEI,II,
1973 and the unpublished doctoral thesis on Nazraney culture submitted
by Ms. Joicy James Menachery, Mysore University, 2004. In Pathittuppathu,
Second Pathu, Pattu One, the tree of protection of the enemy
Poonkkadambu is cut off at the king’s command. In his introduction to
Pathittuppathu G. Vaidyanatha Iyer speaks of this custom, p.xvi (Kerala
Sahitya Academy, 1961).Similarly in his introduction to Puranaanooru P.
R. Parameswaran Pillai also speaks in detail of this custom, p.xxxii (Kerala
Sahitya Academy, 1969). The tree of protection or the tree of victory
was generally Venga, Punna, Veppu, etc. Also cf. James Fergusson, Tree
Worship.
The idea of axis mundi as understood by various peoples is elaborated by
Mircea Eliade in his Encyclopaedia of Religions and elsewhere in his
Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return (trans. from the
French , Harper Torchbooks, New York, 1959 &c.) and in his Sacred and
the Profane : The Nature of Religion, (trans. from the French , Harper
Torchbooks, New York, 1959 &c.)and his many other books and articles
such as Pattern in Comparative
Religion (trans. Rosemary Sheed, Sheed and Ward, London and New York).
Mircea Eliade’s thoughts were unknown to me, and
his works could not be found in the libraries of even some major
seminaries. However after being introduced to the wealth of his thoughts
by Fr. Elavathingal I have become an addict of his works. I find Jyothi
Sahi and others greatly influenced by these thoughts ( e.g. Holy Ground,
Jyothi Sahi, Pace, 1998). Another writer who should be the constant
companion of the student of Indian and Indian Christian art is Ananda
Coomaraswamy (e.g. Art and Swadeshi, Ganesh and Co., Madras). There are
a number of old editions of books by Coomaraswamy in the Public Library,
Trichur and elsewhere in many of the major seminaries.
Finally the attention of the listener is drawn to Anthony Kalliath,
“Paths of Contextualising Indian Spirituality”
in Christian Contribution to Nation Building: A Third Millennium
Enquiry, Ed. S. Ponnumuthen, CBCI-KCBC, Alwaye, 2004, esp. pp. 193-194
and related notes.
Vide note 40 above.
See note 40 above. Space does not permit us to go into the details of
these observations. May be another time.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of
the radioisotope present at any given time will undergo spontaneous
disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years. Basically this means
that half of the original amount of C14 in organic matter will have
disintegrated 5730 years after the organism’s death; half of the
remaining C14 will have disintegrated after another 5730 years and so
forth. After about 50,000 years, the amount of C14 remaining will be so
small that the fossil can't be dated reliably. Under optimum conditions
it has proved to be a versatile technique of dating fossils and
archaeological specimens from 500 to 50,000 years old.
In f.i. Scaria Zacharia, Udayamperur Soonnahadosinte Kanonakal,
Edamattam, 1998; Samuel Chandanappally,
Christian Culture (Mal.), Kottayam, 1979.
Gouvea, Jornada, Coimbra, 1606; in English Geddes, London, 1694 (fully
reproduced in ICHC I, 1978). Recently LIRC has published a new
translation of the Jornada by Pius Malekandathil.
Cf. the paper on “Sculptures of Kerala”, G. Menachery,
Kerala History Association, Ernakulam, 1983 where churches founded in
each century from the Ernakulam area are listed: Akapparambu (16th
Century), Kudavechoor (15th C.), Koratty (14), Chendamangalam (13),
Chowara (12), Kanjoor (11), Vadayar (10), South Paravur (9),
Moozhikkalam (7), Udayanperur (6th C.), Angamaly (5th Century), and
Ambazhakkad in the 4th Century.
Another approach is seen in G. Menachery, Kodungallur… 1987 (p. 41 ff.
of 2000 reprint):
Take one particular instance: The church at Ollur
near Trichur used to be one of the wealthiest in the
whole of Kerala. This church was founded only in
1718, one of the first important churches
established after 1599. Before 1718 the people of
Ollur used to go to Pazhuvil church for Mass, which
Church was founded in 960. Before that, tradition
Goes they used to go to Enammavu church founded in
500. The nearby Vadakkan Pudukkad church was founded
in 400, separating from the Palayur church of 52 AD.
What is important is that the people of all these
places unanimously subscribed to the truth of the
Chronology, although time has brought about great
changes in the status of each place, and yet the
traditions concerning the origin of each church
is recognised by all the churches unanimously…
“Thus these traditions have no less value than
documents written on paper or stone.”
The Shadabdi Smaranika of Trichur Diocese has a similar approach in one of the
articles by G. Menachery, 1987, where the 19th section closes with the remark:
That the followers of various faiths and castes of a land unanimously accept
certain historical realities increase the credibility of such tradition based
beliefs.
A 1926 English translation of the Song, by T.K. Joseph, has been
published in 1931 by Fr. Hosten s.j., reproduced in the Nazranies, p.520
ff. Fr. Bernard T. O. C. D. gives the Malayalam version, Pala, 1916.
Excellent English translations of many of the songs are given by Anantha
Krishna Ayyar in his famous Anthropology of the Syrian Christians,
Ernakulam, 1926. This portion is reproduced in the ICHC I, pp. 485–508.
For the Malayalam see P. U. Lucas, Kottayam, 1910, reprinted in
Purathanappattukal by Jacob Vellian and Cummar Choondal, Kottayam, 1980.
Ibid.
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